Culture of Pakistan Essay

Culture Definition A simple definition of culture is that it is the human response to the forces of Nature and History. According to the (World Conference on Culture Policies, Mexico 1982)Culture is â€Å"the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs.† PAKISTANI CULTURE Pakistan is the country full of natural and cultural wealth. Pakistan has its own unique and specific cultural identification. Culture and heritage of Pakistan reflects the extra ordinary skill and devotion of Pakistani people. Pakistani people are playing a vital role in the presentation, development and promotion of Pakistani culture. The Pakistani culture is dominated by Islamic tradition and heritage. Islamic heritage has great impact on Pakistani culture. In ancient times, Pakistan was a major cultural hub. Many cultural practices and great monuments have been inherited from the time of the ancient rulers of the region. One of the greatest cultural influences was that of the Persian Empire, of which Pakistan was a part. In fact, the Pakistani satraps were at one time the richest and most productive of the massive Persian Empire. Other key influences include the Afghan Empire, Mughal Empire and later, the short-lived but influential, the British Empire. Punjabi Objectives Pakistan is a country of diverse communities with cultural traditions, belief systems, value systems, life styles, dialects and aspirations which determine the objectives of the policy, which are listed below. They aim at providing an environment conducive to the growth and promotion our culture as enshrined in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

Frederick Clegg †A Study in Psychopathy Essay

Throughout the whole book Frederick enjoys his loneliness which occurred due to his abnormal upbringing. Fredericks was guided through life by his uncle whom he sincerely adored and who has become his spiritual life leader. Frederick deeply suffered after his death and didn’t manage to build such strong relationships that he used to have before. Frederick has many psychological drawbacks. Since his childhood, he has been let down and abandoned several times: My father was killed driving. I was two. †¦ He was drunk, but Aunt Annie always said it was my mother that drove him to drink. They never told me what really happened, but she went off soon after and left me with Aunt Annie, she only wanted an easy time. [†¦ ] I don’t care now, if she is still alive, I don’t want to meet her, I’ve got no interest. [†¦] So I was brought up by Aunt Annie and Uncle Dick with their daughter Mabel. Truly, these cases of death and abandonment have influenced him radically. One can easily suppose that he is feared to be re-abandoned and this is a reason why he doesn’t want to risk the option that Miranda abandons him when she is ill. That’s why, Frederick chooses to reject the medical treatment. Surely, he would be accused and imprisoned if she would tell somebody about the kidnapping, but due to the fact that he does not express any fear of being imprisoned, it is more likely that he is more scared of loneliness. Probably the two fears are somehow connected, which is why Frederick refuses to provide Miranda with medical help. His inadequate behavior clearly demonstrates his psychopathic personal traits. In fact, Frederick is sanctimonious person and snob. While looking at other people he experiences antipathy because the way they communicate, organize their daily life and accept him do not coincide with his world view. Frederick is too lazy to do anything to change this situation. He keeps distance with his co-workers and ignores everything which is not included in his life. It can be noticed from the first page that Frederick is quite strange young fellow who perceives surrounding environment in negativity. Due to the fact the he was brought up in a small town experiencing the lack of comfort, knowledge, and chances, he became unable to experience true human feelings like sympathy, and sacrifice. If Frederick Clegg had been a real figure, he would have been diagnosed with the following psychopathic symptoms: †¢ Sex life impersonal, trivial, and poorly integrated: Frederick’s sexual relationships with Miranda could have been developed faster and more productively if only he had not been so handicapped. He treated Miranda as an object and his absolute possession having dominating behavior rather than having equal relationships person with distinct social intentions and needs. †¢ Unresponsiveness in general interpersonal relations Emotional coldness and disinterest in unrelated to his lifestyle events and notions are common to people with certain psychological disorders due to the fact that they are narrowly oriented on one single person/object/notion. †¢ Pathologic egocentricity and incapacity for love From the point of view of psychology and psychopathy the only one person truly and deeply adored by Frederick is he himself. Having higher priority set of his own actions, he thus sincerely justified his right to receive premium quality relationships, attitudes, and life in general. †¢ Poor judgment and failure to learn by experience Frederick is characterized by having irrational thinking and inability to analyze and therefore correct his behavior. †¢ Inadequately motivated antisocial behavior Some medical researchers and analysts have applied the notion of spiritual, psychological, and social suicide in case with Frederick. †¢ Lack of remorse and shame Absence of regret, sorrow, or embarrassment emerges from his total confidence in the soundness of his actions, thoughts, and intentions. †¢ Unreliability Failure to establish healthy relationships with psychologically adequate people results in his inability to function as a reliable person. †¢ Absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations Frederick’s case is different from any other psychological disorder such as psychoneurotics, aggressive sexual behavior, etc. (Mossen 44). Clegg possesses these psychopathic personality traits because he cares little about others. A number of medical analysts claim that Frederick Clegg should be considered to be sociopath rather than psychopath. The difference between these two notions is reflected in the fact that sociopathy develops from negative sociological factors like low social status, financial non-satisfaction, and illegal environment, while psychopathy is ingenerate disease being nurtured by impulsivity, high/low intelligence, and failure to accept social norms and generally establish behavioral rules. He is so selfish he can’t accept any rejections which can be understood from his attitude towards Miranda. The phrase ‘she was mine’ explains everything he felt for Miranda whom he treats just like one of his butterflies that has to be taken care of. After he captures the girl he is overwhelmed by the mind-blowing feeling for possessing what he has cherished such a long time.. Frederick may be emotionally and sexually described as having total lack of sexual attraction. ‘ A statement made by Frederick right after Miranda’s death explains much of himself in terms of his mentally unhealthy character: â€Å"I thought I was acting for the best and within rights†. First of all, Frederick didn’t have good intentions. Although Frederick did not consider Miranda’s disease to be true for the first couple of days, and even after it appeared to be such he didn’t start looking for help. This proves that he was not acting within his rights. Also, the fact of kidnapping itself is far from being human and cannot be justified. This statement demonstrates the absolute egocentricity and brutality of Frederick. It would also be appropriate to note that he was repeatedly treating Miranda as his guest. It is the evidence of unhealthy Frederick’s character as Miranda is forced to spend time at his place rather than volunteering visiting him. All of these things, as well as various others contribute to a sharp audience response that makes the theme of the story become more evident. (Holland 97). Irony may also be noticed in the issue of freedom relating Frederick and Miranda â€Å"relationships†. In fact, Miranda is kept locked, however, it does not mean that she is limited in her mind and soul. Frederick’s mind level is very limited, he is close to anyone else’s ideas which can be seen from his inability to recognize and understand Miranda’s attraction to art. One more significant discussion going on in the story was the conversation about the book ‘The catcher in the rye. ‘ Frederick fails to understand the meaning as he perceives it as a mess and doesn’t like the way the main character talks in it. It set a vivid contrast with Miranda and illustrates to what extent she is free regardless of the fact of her imprisonment. She is eager to learn everything new that surrounds her. She is an open-minded lady and her skill to deeply interpret others’ thought and feelings are based on her own thinking and analysis. (Nicklette 87). Frederick is a character with little knowledge of what love and human relationships are. That’s why he does not know what he really wants from relationships with the girl. What he strives for is clarity, excellence and exceptionality: â€Å"I always thought of her like that, I mean words like elusive and sporadic, and very refined – not like the other ones, even the pretty ones. † As indicated above, it is wholesome and perfect love that Frederick strives for. He rejects females who have had active sexual life and is always disgusted by them. His â€Å"perfect match† is â€Å"pure† just as he considers himself. Here he reveals what in psychopathy is called grandiose sense of perfection. (Mossen 1995). He picks a prostitute, and explains his sexual inability by saying that the female was not compatible with his imaginary woman: â€Å"I was too nervous, I tried to be as if I knew all about it and of course she saw, she was old and she was horrible, horrible. I mean, both in the filthy way she behaved and in looks. She was worn, common† . This statement does not only show Frederick’s idea of what real women should be like, but it also opens his low self-confidence. Throughout the story, the audience can feel Fredericks’s inferiority complex and with the example of what Frederick thinks of Miranda’s surrounding environment: â€Å"The only times I didn’t have nice dreams about her being when I saw her with a certain young man, a loud noisy public-school type who had a sports car† . It is obvious that he is jealous of the â€Å"young man with a sports car†, not only because of Miranda, but also because he does not belong to the upper crust of the society. In his storytelling, Frederick states that he people from the upper class disgust him: I remember a night we went out and had supper at a posh restaurant [†¦] Everything in the room seemed to look down at us because we weren’t brought up their way. [†¦] If you ask me, London’s all arranged for the people who can act like public schoolboys, and you don’t get anywhere if you don’t have the manner born and the right la-di-da voice – I mean rich people’s London, the West End, of course. † There is also some expression â€Å"la-di-da† that is oftentimes used by Frederick. Oxford English Dictionary Online states that â€Å"la-di-da† stands for â€Å"A derisive term for one who affects gentility; a ‘swell’†. He also addresses upper crust men as â€Å"public schoolboys†, and typically continues by illustrating them as loud, stupid and egotistical. It would be appropriate to note how Frederick at the beginning does not seem to take Miranda as a lady from the upper crust, but later on he changes his mind: â€Å"Of course it was very educated, but it wasn’t la-di-da, it wasn’t slimy, she didn’t beg the cigarettes or like demand them, she just asked for them in an easy way and you didn’t have any class feeling† . At the beginning this is the way he describes Miranda and, in this case, her voice. After Miranda’s death, Frederick says: â€Å"I ought to have seen that I could never get what I wanted from someone like Miranda, with all her la-di-da ideas and clever tricks† . Apparently, Frederick’s feelings for Miranda have changed. He finally is able to understand the social difference between Miranda and him, and its importance, but not until just before Miranda dies: â€Å"There was always class between us† . Due to his low social background, Frederick cannot truly see himself as someone climbing upwards on social ladder after he has won some money. His inability to accept of upper crust behavior has very strong roots in his head. When Miranda pushes him to donate money to charity, he refuses, and expresses openly what he thinks about this idea: â€Å"I know rich people give sums, but in my opinion they do it to get their names published or to dodge the tax-man† . When Frederick refers to people of the upper crust, he has a very cynical opinion. Both Frederick and Miranda stay totally the same as the plot moves forward, although sometimes Miranda seems to be rather passive in development. There can be found rather clear markers in the novel that demonstrates a development, especially in the case of Frederick. At the beginning, he is shown as an innocent, naive young fellow who is somewhat socially isolated. (Russel 129). Frederick has a very romantic view of love and relationships at that time, the type of romantic love we can read about in books, for instance, in Romeo and Juliet: â€Å"I can’t say what it was, the very first time I saw her, I knew she was the only one. [†¦] I used to have daydreams about her, I used to think of stories where I met her, did things she admired, married her and all that. Nothing nasty, that was never until what I’ll explain later† . Frederick has turned from naive young fellow with low social skills to an compulsive, heartless serial killer. Fowles does not state that Frederick will become a serial killer, but the way he lets Frederick think about kidnapping another young lady after Miranda’s death gives the reader the feeling that the story has not yet come to an end. Nonetheless, Frederick is still very naive when it comes to death and life. â€Å"The Great Beyond† as an idiom for death suggests a romantic mind, but his belief in aspirin as the best way kill him is rather unreasonable. Works Cited †¢ Daniels, John. Literature XX. London: Ranfield Books, 2004. †¢ Fowles, John. The Collector. New York: Pocket Books, 2000. †¢ Fernando, Eric. Literature Today. Chicago: Chicago Publishing, 1999. †¢ Holland, Mark. Literature Analysis. New York: Penguin, 2003. †¢ Kelly, Bob. John Fowles. Biography. New York: Maison Book, 1995. †¢ Mossen, Steve. The Collector. Analysis. New York: Maison Book, 1995. †¢ Nicklette, Brebis. European Literature. Psychological Overview. Chicago: Chicago Publishing, 1997. †¢ Powels, Eric. History of World Literature. Oxford: Oxford Press, 1996. †¢ Russel, Brandon. Literature. Synopsis. New York: Maison Book, 1995. †¢ Oxford English Dictionary. â€Å"La-di-da†. 21 Feb. 2007

Symantec to generate a robust overall business strategy Essay

Symantec to generate a robust overall business strategy - Essay Example Company Profile Symantec Corp., founded in 1982 by visionary computer scientists, has had strong development strategy that saw acquisition of a number of corporations and enterprises to become what it is today. with time, the company has evolved to become one of the world’s largest software companies providing employment opportunities to about 18,500 employees in more than 50 countries(About Symantec, 2013, web). Accordi8ng to Barron’s Table (2013, web), Symantec reported revenues of $6.73 billion in fiscal year (FY) 2012 with a profit of $1.17 billion, and recently reported third quarter FY 2013 results were higher than Q3 2012. Symantec is one of the leaders in the security software market, and its ranking in the Barron’s 500 table rose from 267 to in 2012 to 14 in 2013. The major competitors to Symantec include Macafee, Postini and Websens (About Symantec, 2013, web). Business Strategy Symantec’s goal is to continue to improve its existing products and services, and at the same time develop new, innovative products and services that solve important unmet or underserved needs. Over time customers will have more and better choices that will continue to meet their evolving needs and deliver better value. Symantec is focusing on 10 key areas that combine existing products and services into new, innovative and comprehensive solutions that meet multiple customer needs with integrated and higher value offerings. The overall development process is estimated to take six to 24 months depending on the specific offering (Barron’s Table, 2013, web). These future offerings are intended to align with meeting three key customer needs: Making it simple to be productive and protected at home and work; keeping businesses safe and compliant; and keeping business information and applications up and running. Information Systems and Strategy An organization’s information system includes people, business procedures, and organizational resou rces aimed at collecting data and processing that data to enhance organizational success and development. All information systems involve the acquisition of information, processing of that information and finally the application of that information into various organizational needs. Symantec has a well developed IS strategy that focuses on the use of IS in supporting its business development and growth strategy. By delivering on its information management strategy, the organization protects information completely, deduplicates all information everywhere, thus eliminating redundant data. Further, it provides customers with delete confidently and discover efficiently in the use of its products. New delivery models such as the Symantec Enterprise Vault 9.0 and Enterprise Vault Discovery Collector provides customers with the ease of storage, management and discovery of information across the enterprise (Symantec Corporation  History, 2013, web). Proposed Information Strategy, Comparis on with the Current Strategy and Evaluation There is an increase in the need for adopting proper and reliable information systems for every organization. Currently, due to the increase in the level of competition in the current business environment, every organization seeks to implement competitive strategies aiming at winning customers. Symantec corp. operates in a highly competitive business environment. With the increase in the number of organizations providing security and protection to enterprises, organizations and individuals,

The Great Depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Great Depression - Essay Example September 20th saw the crash of the London Stock Exchange after the arrest of a number of key players in that market. At this time the market’s foundation was shaky, prices were increasing and reducing frequently many people were unable to stay in the market. The market lost about 12% of its value at its opening on October 24th this was called Black Thursday. On October 28, more investors left the stock market and the market slide deepened even further. On 29th called â€Å"Black Tuesday†, the stock market traded around 15 million; the Dow had lost a sum of 68 points in the two days. Later that day a large number of stocks traded the same day made that market to lose more than $20 billion in the stock exchange. When the stock market fell, people panicked selling their stocks at lower than normal prices to anyone willing to buy. The market fall was the same for almost all countries except Japan. The U.S economy was greatly affected since most of the investors had placed their earnings in the stock market. Businesses were unable to acquire capital for new enterprises. Banks and industries became bankrupt. This led to the closure of businesses and banks, reduced money circulation, firing of employees and less production. With less income, the level of consumption of the average consumer declined. As a result of all these effects, there was massive unemployment. People had neglected agriculture and moved to the cities, this is what contributed to the effects of the market crash. There were not enough agricultural products to be sold.

Debate for Australia euthanasia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Debate for Australia euthanasia - Essay Example The same view is held by the Islamic religion (Bulow et al., 2008). Therefore, the opponents view legalization of euthanasia as being immoral and against God’s commandment since it does not sanctify life. However, the proponents have responded by arguing that legalizing euthanasia will actually uphold human dignity. They have argued that no person should be allowed to undergo torture from terminal illness. Such continuous pain, they have pointed out, which medicine has no control over degrades human dignity and defeats the very logic for continuing to live. Therefore, euthanasia will do more good than harm (Norval & Gwyther, 2003). In addition, they have also said that the society is built on fundamental values of compassion and mercy. The society should therefore rise to the occasion and help the terminally ill from suffering unbearably without any help (Norval & Gwyther, 2003). Euthanasia as murder versus right-based arguments The opponents have viewed legalization of euthan asia has a commission to commit murder. They have argued that any action intended to take away another person’s life is inherently wrong and should never be allowed even if the victim has given the consent (Somerville, 2003). Euthanasia has therefore been viewed has killing of other human beings and fervently opposed on those grounds. On the other hand, the proponents have made an argument against this view by pointing out to the principles of autonomy and self-determination. The argument has been that a patient has a right to his or her life and therefore can determine on how he or she should die (Bartels & Otlowski, 2010; Kerridge, Lowe & Stewart, 2009). The autonomy principle allows... The argument has been that a patient has a right to his or her life and therefore can determine on how he or she should die (Bartels & Otlowski, 2010; Kerridge, Lowe & Stewart, 2009). The autonomy principle allows a patient of sound mind to make any decision pertaining to his or her life as long as such a decision does nobody any harm (Norval & Gwyther, 2003). Along this line, it is argued that a patient has a right to determine when he or she no longer wants to live. It is further argued that, due to the principle of autonomy, a patient has a right to his or her own decisions and equally a right to a dignified death (Bartels & Otlowski, 2010). In general, the proponents argue that by patients being denied the right to euthanasia, the society is actually tramping upon their (patients’) rights and forcing decisions on them (patients) which they (patients) do not necessarily ascribe to. In other word, the insistence on the sustenance of the status quo in reference to legalizatio n of euthanasia is a continued violation of patients’ rights and thus those of human rights. How have the opponents responded to these accusations of violating human rights specifically the principles of autonomy? The proponents have come out strongly and fiercely claiming that actually allowing euthanasia is an abuse of autonomy and human rights contrary to what the proponents have said. The opponents have argued that the principle of autonomy advocates for conditions that favor autonomy. Any attempt to suppress any condition.

Research proposal Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Research proposal - Dissertation Example The errors encountered while trying to understand a second language are dependent on the method (s) of acquisition. Learning is not as faster as being taught in class. On the best possible way to teach a second language, several errors are realized while teaching a second language and thus the context should be set through the adoption of several teachings methods with more emphasis on the topic, the presenter and the setting. There is very little evidence on the errors experienced while trying to learn a second language. Statement of the Problem There is very little literature if any on errors of learning a second language and hence this proposal. However, Krashen, S. D. (1981) in his research study title principles and practice in second language learning points out that learning a new language depends on the feeling of correctness. Krashen developed several hypotheses and tried to prove them qualitatively arguing that quantitative research design may not give all that it is expect ed as directed by the research questions. To Krashen, the errors encountered while trying to understand a second language are dependent on the method (s) of acquisition. Learning is not as faster as being taught in class. Cook, V. (2000) in support of Krashen’s arguments points that learning a second language with success depends on the willingness and ability to graps the first language. To Cook, the in-ability to learn the first language means that learning a second language may be difficult. To gain a deeper understanding of the perceived errors in learning a second language, Cook employed the use of a sample from an entire population of non-English students in a linguist setting using stratified sampling for uniformity of the results. They were then required to read aloud several English words while recording their different scents. Cook was able to detect that, those that had acquired the English language by being taught has grasped it with finality while those that had learned on themselves were not that proficient. Banes (2002) in his research on the best possible way to teach a second language sums up saying that several errors are realized while teaching a second language and thus the context should be set through the adoption of several teachings methods with more emphasis on the topic, the presenter and the setting. The above citations are proof that there is very little evidence on the errors experienced while trying to learn a second language. Aims and Objectives The aims of the proposed study include; Establishing the impact of second language learning among Saudis; and Gauging perceptions of Saudis in relation to second language learning. This will be aimed at; Identifying the errors involved in learning a second language; Enabling policy makers to take a holistic approach in the learning systems; Identify key hindrances to second learning; and Proposing strategies/policies to the education sector; Sensitizing Saudis on the advantages of second language learning and the common errors made. Research Questions In the conducting the research, the researcher aims at answering the following research questions; Are Saudis aware of the advantages of learning a second

Plan For a Student and an IEP Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plan For a Student and an IEP - Term Paper Example Also, included in this plan are the school administrators, students with the appropriate ages, and related services personnel. The Individualized Education Program acts as the foundation of a quality education ground for each child with any form of disability. This paper will come up with a plan that will look to include a child with disabilities in a general class. It will cover some of the characteristics of the disabled child, a list of personnel assigned to the child, and strategies or modifications needed for the child with disabilities to succeed. Finally, it will come up with an Individualized Education Program for this child. A plan for including a child with disabilities in a general class of learners This section will outline a plan that will seek to include a student with disabilities in a general class of students who do not have disabilities. Characteristics There are ten categories of disabilities that might face students. These categories follow as: autism, development delayed, intellectual, sensory, emotional, neurological, communication, specifically learning disability, physical and other health issues (Bateman, 2006). The student in this research is one who suffers physical disabilities issues. A physically disabled person refers to one whose disabilities are as a result of an improper function of any physical part of their body. This could be the legs, eyes, ears, hands among others. A better word of these individuals would be the term disabled. Some of the characteristics of a physically disabled person are as follows: they lack the ability to walk, blindness or their hands might be deformed (Bateman, 2006). This is because some vital part of their physical body parts might not be functioning properly. Personnel assigned to child Major personnel that should be related to these students for them to perform effectively are the school administration, teachers, other students, parents, and guardians. The child also needs to have a committee sta ff representative. Third party personnel include medical practitioners or health care givers whose duties include dealing with the medical, psychological, or health conditions facing the disabled students (Bateman, 2006). After the Individual Education Plan is created and placement is determined, now comes the implementing part. The child's teachers are accountable for implementing all program modifications, educational services or supports as stated by the Individual Education Plans. Schools should have an Individual Education Plan in place at the start of a school year. Initial Individual Education Plans must be created within a month of the resolve of eligibility. The services stated in the pupil’s Individual Education Plan must be provided as soon as possible. This plan follows as: Yearly review The Individual Education Plan team is responsible for carrying out an annual review of the document. This is important in making sure that the student is meeting educational aims or making progress on the standards specified for every objective (Wright, 2010). Acceptance and amendments A formal Individual Education Plan must be signed by a guardian or parent before any of the stated services may start to function. Nevertheless, guardians or parents do not have to sign any document when it is at first planned (Wright, 2010). Technical safeguards School personnel have a duty to issue the parents of this child with a technical safeguard notice,

Primitivism and Exoticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Primitivism and Exoticism - Essay Example If an entity is being adopted or being infiltrated in the other culture then the entity becomes foreign for that specific culture. Exoticism deals with the exotic adoptions in arts from diverse and previous cultures and incorporates it in the modern era of art. It demonstrates that â€Å"Exoticism is to space what Primitivism is to time†. However, Primitivism and Exoticism in the modern music congealed the preceded understanding of these two schools of thought in the modern art. Exoticism and primitivism in music do not only deal with foreign or previous contents and contexts but also utilized the developed outcomes of those contexts in the modern manner. This paper is aimed to discuss the association of Exoticism and Primitivism to the music in the era of modernism and it will be discussed in the light of chapter seven of the book Modernism and Music: Anthology of Sources by Daniel Albright. Primitivism The side of modern music which is embarked in the ideology of Primitivism is contained with some distinct traits which are not usually found in the conventional ideals of primitivism in other modern art forms like paintings. It can be understood by contrasting the two art forms in the domain of Primitivism. Primitivism in the art is accepted to be consisting on three major factors. These major factors are intensely separate in their realistic sense and concepts. However the modern primitivism does incorporate all three of these distinct factors which are fascination, the factor of disgust and a significant proportion of terror. Modern primitive art is formulated by the compilation of these three factors in which the pessimistic account is more illuminated than the optimistic shade of the demonstration. (Albright, 2004). Primitivism in modern music is significantly different from the other art forms regarding Primitivism. It can be said that Primitivism in music contains a less amount of pessimism as compared to the Primitivism in painting and literature. Musical primitivism is immensely based on research and this research involves the analyses of folksongs. The researchers of these folksongs realize the non modernity of those folksongs which were produced in the preceding times. The essence of Primitivism is steeped under the principle that the art of previous times must be adopted and demonstrated on the canvas of modern art in the modern times. Similarly, the Primitivism in modern music manifests the correspondence of preceding folksongs with a lesser of the dark side (Albright, 2004). Primitivism and Modernism Modernism is often described as the post feudal and post colonial era in which the preceding ideologies were replaced with the modern ideologies including the equality of mankind. The most fundamental change which is marked to be identified as the major change was the rise of capitalism and industrialization in the prominent parts of the world. This major change initiated the congealment of society by every possible aspect and perspective including the system of politics in the society, educational system and most importantly the art. The period of modernism is also known as the era of enlightenment in which many thinker and artists played there significant roles in their scope of excellence. Many of the artistic movements were formed and appreciated in

The Problem and its Origin Essay Example for Free

The Problem and its Origin Essay There was a time in the 20th century when the primary source of income of the people in the United States was farming. It was also during that time when the government provided economic security to the extended families. This lasted for years until they experienced Great Depression which diminished the lifetime savings of the aged and at the same time reduced the gainful employment opportunities. This was the reason why they experienced national crisis and it was because of this issue that the Social Security develop programs to address the issue. (http://waysandmeans. house. gov/media/pdf/greenbook2003/Section1. pdf) To address this problem, the Federal government granted loans to the state people and the loans were paid through direct relief or work relief. With this, the government came up with programs for emergency relief and public works. The president of the state submitted a proposal to the congress about an insurance program. This law included the establishment of two insurance programs – the Federal System of old age which was intended to help the retirees who had once been employed in the industry and commerce and the Federal State System which intended to address unemployment insurance issues. The law which was enacted by the federal government served as a supplement to the incomes of the state people who were not eligible for Social Security Survival Insurance. There was a time in the past when over 33 million people were covered by the Social Security system. Though coverage was obligatory for most of the workers, there were still about 6. 5 million workers who did not enjoy the coverage under Social Security in 2002. It was not until 1990 when the credit was replaced with a newer system which was intended to be fair between the employed and the self-employed individuals. Under this new system, there was an adjustment of the SECA tax to reflect that employees do not pay FICA taxes on the employer’s portion. Additionally, it was also specified in the system that self-employed workers were given the chance to deduct half of their SECA taxes for income tax purposes. The outline below shows those workers who were exempted from FICA and SECA taxes: (http://waysandmeans. house. gov/media/pdf/greenbook2003/Section1. pdf) o State and local government workers o Election workers o Ministers o Federal workers o College students o Household workers o Self-employed workers. The congress had required long-term estimates of the balance of the program and they had also set tax rates to ensure that the income of the program was sufficient enough to cover its outgo. The long-range projections of the system were affected by three factors – demographic factors, economic factors and factors related to Social Security programs. In their 1988 report, the trustees used an alternative method to determine their actuarial balance. This method computed the actuarial balance as the difference between the present value of income and costs for the period, which is then divided by the present value of the taxable payroll for the period. Normally, the trustees based their conclusion on the on the â€Å"closeness† of the income and cost-rates. In the long run, the projections of the trustees started troubling. For quite a number of years, the report have always projected long-term financing problems and this report had continued to show a near-term buildup of trust fund reserves and the forecast for the next 75 years. The interest which was paid to the trust funds was a way to make the fund increase until it reaches $7. 5 trillion in 2027. However, the trustees had estimated that by 2028, the fund would be insufficient to pay all benefits when all is due. It had been observed that the social security system had continuously come to a worse situation. The congress even attempted to help eliminate the long-run problem. Projections were made and that showed that Congress had stemmed the red ink for the next 75 years. However, this situation did not represent the condition of the entire period. Since 1983, the averaging period had continually deficit one (1) year at the back end and at the front end continued to drop a surplus. This had caused the condition to worsen even more. The evaluation of the income and the outgo was based on measuring the period in reaching a conclusion of whether close actuarial balance existed, in which there was a deviation from the amount. In order to meet the test of financial adequacy, the balance at the first 10-year segment must be at least 100% of the annual expenditure. This condition must be consistent with the 10-year segment of close actuarial balance. However, under these measures, the trustees made a conclusion in 2003 that the system was not as close as the actuarial balance over the long-run. There had been a deficit in between the summarized income and cost rates for about 1. 92% of the total taxable payroll. The chart below shows the social security trust funds’ end of year balances from 2003 to 2042. The projections was not based on a pessimistic assumptions but this hinge on the demographic factors which were based on the post-WWII baby boom and the general aging society. Social Welfare Policy To address this issue, Social Security implemented policies for the members to enjoy. The benefits given by the Social Security were paid to workers and to their dependents should the worker worked long enough to cover employment to be insured. There was a certain measurement used for insured status. The social security uses lifetime record of earnings which was reported under the worker’s social security number and then counting the number of quarters which were considered as covered credits. There was a time when one credit was earned for each calendar quarter. In which, the worker was paid %50 in wages for covered employment, or just received $100 for self-employed individuals. However, a worker also received a credit for each multiple of $100 in an annual earning; the total number of credits must not exceed by four though. There are two types of insured status – fully insured and currently insured. For fully insured workers, they must have a total credits which is equal to one credit for each year after dependents reach the age of 21 up to the year before they reach 62; became disabled or died, whichever came first. The fully insured status is required for the eligibility for all types of benefits. Regardless of the age of the worker, he must have a total of at least 6 credits to be fully insured. If the total number of credits of the workers reaches 40, he is insured for life. For disability insurance, workers must have a total of at least 20 credits during the 40-quarter period in which they became disabled. However, if workers are insured before the age of 31, they are immediately covered by disability insurance. In general, disability is defined to be incapable of gaining substantial activity. The impairment must be medically proven and is expected to last for not less than 12 months so workers can avail the benefits. For workers who are at least 62 years old, they are now eligible for retirement benefits. For the family of the workers, they also get to enjoy other benefits. The following summarizes the benefits that each member of the family can get: (http://waysandmeans. house. gov/media/pdf/greenbook2003/Section1. pdf) †¢ Spouse benefits – the spouse can get monthly benefit which is paid to him/her under the following conditions: (1) a currently-married spouse must be at least 62 and who is caring for more than one of the worker’s entitled children who are disabled or who have not reach the age of 16 and (2) a divorced, not married spouse of at least 62 years old. The marriage of the divorced spouse should have lasted for 10 years. The divorced spouse was entitled of the worker’s retirement. †¢ Widow(er) benefits – a monthly pay is given to a widow(er) should the widow(er) had not been married and must either be 60 years old or older or the age range is between 50 and 59 and is disabled throughout the waiting period of 5 consecutive months. †¢ Child’s benefit – the child receives a monthly benefit should the child had not been married, the child is biological or adopted and a step child or grandchild of a retiree. The child must be below 18 years old and must be a full-time elementary or secondary student who is below 19 years old. †¢ Mother’s/Father’s benefit – the mother/father of the retiree or survivor gets monthly benefit if: (1) the worker’s benefit was fully or currently insured at time of death and (2) neither the father nor the mother of the deceased worker was not married and must have one or more entitled children of the worker under his/her care. This benefit continues until the youngest child of the worker is below 16 years old and/or disabled. †¢ Parent’s benefit – a monthly survivor benefit is given to the parents of the worker should the parent have not been married or is 62 years old or older. The parents must have received half of the support from the worker at the time of the worker’s death. †¢ Lump-sum death benefit – an amount of $255 is payable upon the death of a fully- or currently-insured worker to the surviving spouse who was living with the deceased worker. If the worker has no spouse, the lump-sum benefit is paid to the child of the worker. In cases where the worker had neither spouse nor children, the lump-sum amount is not given. When beneficiaries whose income is above a certain threshold, they are then required to include a portion of their benefit to the Social Security Benefits in their federally taxable income.

Income, Poverty, and Health Care Essay Example for Free

Income, Poverty, and Health Care Essay The objective for this paper is to explain what I have learned from our class discussion and our readings of Chapter 30 of our text, Economics Today. It will show my personal understanding of this week’s objectives through explaining what I have learned by analyzing the impacts of government regulation of the economy, including the rationalization for and history of regulation, degrees of success, and future consequences if regulation does or does not occur while applying economic concepts to explain income distribution, and its connection lifestyle choices and opportunities. In this week’s assignment, to relate them to my life experiences, I have selected two articles relating to this topic, Income, Poverty, and Health Care, and I will be explaining why we are to review what has been happening lately, and why it is happening? The first article that I have chosen relates to the same topic as our class discussion, healthcare. I chose this because it is highly relatable to not just a small group of individuals, but every American citizen in the United States. Obamacare, or Affordable Care Act, will take effect on October 1, 2013, and it is viewed as â€Å"when poor and middle-class Americans will begin signing up for the health care laws new benefits. † (Young, J. (1-19-13)) To make sure that everyone signs up for this new healthcare program, they have created â€Å"Enroll America, an umbrella organization of nonprofits and health care industry organizations, that will carry out a major national public education campaign with paid advertising, online outreach, community activities and coordination. (Young, J. (1-19-13)) The major problem that most will have a hard time swallowing is the fines that you will receive, either as an individual, or as an employer. Government Health Insurance Mandates – If an individual does not have insurance they will be required to pay a fine of up to â€Å"$750 per year or up to $2,250 per year for a family that is uninsured. Firms with more than 50 employees will receive a fine of $750 for every employee that obtains federal subsidies for coverage. † (Graham, J. Kaye, D. (2006) Pg. 79) One issue that most people would not even think about concerning the new healthcare laws is that it is going to affect out budgets a great deal more than we first thought. I know that I was shocked to learn that our family pets’ routine visits to the veterinarian office will also come with a higher price tag due to the new healthcare law. While they said this is unintended, the fact that â€Å"medical equipment and supplies will be going up in cost, that extra expense will have to passed on to the customers. (CBSMiami (3-11-13)) Most would wonder how this would affect their office visit for their furry family members. Well, â€Å"it’s part of a new 2. 3-percent federal excise tax on certain medical devices that just went into effect. The tax will help fund the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, intended for people, not pets. † (CBSMiami (3-11-13)) We know that the manufacturers will have to pay this tax, which will in turn cause their costs to produce these products, to rise. They will have no choice but to have to transfer these costs onto the consumers. This affects our vet visits because some of the products that were meant for humans also are used in our vet’s office, such as â€Å"IV pumps, sterile scalpels and anesthesia equipment. † (CBSMiami (3-11-13)) This week’s topic relates to one that I had discussed not too long ago in my Macroeconomics class. Since we are to be charged an additional tax to cover this new law in healthcare, I thought it would be appropriate to bring up the following information. The hoped for results of taxation and government spending as implied by the fiscal policy, is to help keep our economy out of a recession, or even worse, a depression. Depending on how fiscal policy is used in different situations, it will affect different people, and is not always helpful to the whole economy. The economy needs to be closely monitored and adjusted on a constant basis based on what is currently, or what is expected in the future of the economy. In times of high inflation, the government will increase the taxation rate to help build up the economy and keep the inflation rate down. Fiscal policy has the right to increase or decrease government spending which can raise or lower the overall economy monies in circulation. With this being said, it makes it clearer as to why we are taxed higher as the government increases its public spending. It may not seem understandable to the general population because most are not in agreeance with this new healthcare law. Many believe the increase in taxes will not cover the costs that are going to be associated with the healthcare mandate, which will in turn cause the federal and individual states to also raise their taxes or reduce their healthcare costs in order to balance out the increased funding needed to support these new laws. (Graham, J. Kaye, D. (2006) Pg. 681) I must say that after digging deeper into this subject, I am more appalled at the fact that this new â€Å"healthcare reform act† may potentially damage our society instead of help it. In the current state of our economy, which is shaky to say the least, does our government really think this will help us? I for one am not too sure. I do not want to get slapped with a fine because I choose not to purchase healthcare, but taking on an extra payment, when our pocketbooks are already stretched past their limits, is just as equally disconcerting.

Historical Development Of Radio And Recent Radios Media Essay

Historical Development Of Radio And Recent Radios Media Essay Since mid 1990s, with the liberalization of airwaves in Uganda, private radio FM stations have been mushrooming and have challenge the four decades of dominance of state radio. Majority of radios are located in big towns while a few at the countryside. Despite the increasing number of radio stations countrywide, womens access and participation has remained minimal. In war torn northern Uganda, The Department of International Development (DFID) built a community station radio station-Mega FM. Today it is highly revered for womens empowerment in the region than any other radio station. This is article is twofold. First, it seeks to explore the development of radio industry and the position of women in the ever growing radio industry today. Secondly, it highlights how an alternative radio, specifically Mega FM community radio is contributing to womens empowerment in Northern Uganda. In Andhra Pradesh, India, community radio is being used for womens empowerments. (Hindi 2010). In Haiti, The Haitian Womens Community Radio Network (REFRAKA) facilitates radio production on local community issues including womens voice (Bell, 2010). In Burkina Faso, Radio Pengdwendà © is sued for raising awareness and increasing womens participation in development Koala 2008. In Niger, The Bankilarà © radio station help in local mobilization of women. (Kohler 2008). Examples of womens driven initiatives like these are endless. They demonstrate womens determination for public sphere in different societies where their voices can be heard in development. While in some societies women have been able to set-up their own radios i.e. womens radios, others have not been successful in getting this space. Women still share radios with men but with greater womens involvement and participations. In Africa, according to African Media Development Initiative (AMDI) Report, the last two decades have seen significant growth in radio industry (AMDI 2006). These growths have been in both community radio and commercial radios. Commercial radios are situated in major cities and towns while community radios have mainly dominated countryside. According to sterling et al, [t]he number of community radio stations in sub-Saharan Africa has grown from 10 to more than 800 in the last 20 years. (Sterling et al 2007). This makes community radios the most effective form of communication in rural Africa. According to Sibanda, listenership is estimated above at 91.1% in Sub-Saharan Africa (Sibanda 2001; Sterling et al 2007). Womens ownership of the radio is estimated at 67.8%. In Uganda, since liberalization of airwaves in the mid 1990s, there have been mass waves of radio stations (Khamalwa 2006). There are over 150 radio stations countrywide (Nassanga 2007:4) To date, radios are now in almost all major towns in Uganda reaching all sections of people in the society. These radios have bridged the communication gap between the urban and rural, literate and poor, men and women. The rural poor and marginalized women are taking active in broadcasting. Radio is the main source of information for Ugandans with very high listenership. According to Khamalwa, who cited Intermedia Report of 2005 and Uganda Census Report 2002, he writes that: Listenership in Uganda is very high, with InterMedia estimating in 2005 that 100% of the population had listened to the radio in the past year, 92.8% in the past seven days, and 73.7% as recently as the day before (InterMedia, 2005).The 2002 census showed that about half of households (49.2%) in the country reported that word of mouth was their main source of information, followed by radio (47.8%). This is compared with less than 1% of households who reported the print media (newspapers and magazines) as their main source of information and 1% for TV (UBOS, 2002). (Khamalwa 2006:14) In Gulu, DFID, commissioned and built a new community radio station, Mega FM, to serve the rural war torn northern Uganda with information needs (Ibrahim, 2007). This station is operational since 2002 serving the marginalized communities of former ex-combatants, women and other sections of the population in northern Uganda due to over two decades of war between the Government of Uganda (GoU) and Lords Resistance Army (LRA). It broadcast in local languages with news and some occasional government and NGOs programmes in English. The radio uses different broadcasting formats to suit different audiences. It employs 45 people with some acting as full time while other works as part time staff (Otim 2007). The revenue for sustainability is majorly generated from NGO sponsored programmes and some commercial advertised by corporate companies. This radio is the most stable radio station in northern Uganda with powerful signal reaching as far as South Sudan and Democratic republic of Congo. This article is an attempt to show the history of radio broadcasting in Uganda and the position of women in the current fast growing broadcasting industry. It seeks to highlight the contributions of a community radio to womens empowerment in rural northern Uganda while challenging the role of other mainstream radios in the country. It illustrates the importance of alternative media for women as emphasized by feminist media scholars (Jallov 1992; Steiner 1992). This essay proceeds in several steps. First it traces the historical development of radio in Uganda from the colonial time to latest developments in the industry. Secondly, it seeks to show the position of women in radio industry in Uganda to understand womens portrayal, coverage and their participations. In the third section, I discuss several contributions of Mega FM community radio to womens empowerment in rural northern Uganda and finally highlight the challenges of community radios for womens empowerment in countryside nor thern Uganda. Growth and Development of radio in Uganda In 1937, a Committee on Broadcasting Services in the Colonies was set up by the British government. This committee was charged with the responsibility of investigating the role of broadcasting in the colonies (Chibita 2006: ). This committee recommended that radio broadcasting was to be instrumental not only, and perhaps not even primarily for the entertainment, but for the enlightenment of the population for their instructions in public health, agriculture, etc (Kiwanuka-Tondo 1990:50). Acording to Chibita, it was until the 1940s, the British felt the need for communication more tha ever because they needed to explain it polcies, plans, programmes and intentions. It was by now clear that the print media could not carry out this roles. On recommendation of the Plymouth Report,The Uganda Broadacsting Servies was set up to cater for the interest of the colonial officials (Chibita June 2006:112). Kiwanuka-Tondo adds that this service was set up for major three reasons: Keep foreigners i nformed, mobilization and governance and public education (Kiwanuka-Tondo 1990:54). These reasons are similar to one at the Gold Coast, the modern day Ghana (Head 1979). Therefore in 1954, the first radio named the Uganda Broadcasting Service set up by the British colonial government (Matovu March 1990, Kiwanuka-Tondo 1990). English became the dominant language on the station with a few Ugandan languages. (Chibita 2006; Chibita 2010; Matovu 1990). Indeed, radio was used by the governement as an information channel for the primary benefit of the British perosnnel in Uganda, the Asians, and the small but growing group of Uganda elite. (Matovu 1990:348). The radio remained under the control of colonial govenrment. According to Chibita, before independence, the colonial govenrment controlled the radio. She adds that: Under colonial rule the locals had little access to radio as a political space either as employees or participants in the programming. Apart from monopolizing the airwaves, the colonial government enacted or applied specific laws and statutory instruments including the Penal Code Act of 1950 which criminalized a wide range of media offences including defamation, publication of false news, sedition and embarrassing foreign princes and dignitaries. Inevitably, at the height of the independence struggle, the role of radio as a political space was limited (Chibita 2010 ) By 1957, Ugandan languages had started to dominate the station but they had very limited time on the air. 8 languages were incorporated into the programming (Chibita June 2006). The languages include: English, Luganda, 4Rs, Ateso, Lwo, Lugbara and Hindustani (see Chibita June 2006). The languges shows attempts at regional represnetationby the Bristih governement. For example, 4Rs, (Runyoro, Rutoro, Runakore and Rukiga) are langauges in western Uganda, Lwo is primarily Acholi Langi and Alur in the north while Ateso is primarily eastern and Luganda, the dominant language in the central region. Lungauges like Lugbara were incorprated because of their disticnt aspect. In 1957, a committee again set up to evaluate the broadcasting service in Uganda (Chibita 2006 Matovu 1990). This committee was led Gervase Harley Chibita 2006). The committee finding was came out in what came to be known: The Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Organization, Policy and Operation of the Governments Information Services. According to Matovu, this report underscored the relevance of broadcast services in the country. The report was also critical of the short broadcasting period in Uganda. Among the problems, It cited the lack of a more comprehensive news services as well as the low standard of translation and presentation over the microphone. Other criticisms were lack of sufficient programs reflecting the life, interests and culture of the African outside towns, insufficient attention to the needs of women listeners; and lack of diversity of views on current political affairs. The report also noted that local talent in many field was not being fully encouraged and developed. Also, little was being done to establish broadcasting as a patron of the arts. On the whole, the report summed up, the significance of many of the important elements in Ugandas life and society was not being adequately brought out in the programs. (Matovu 1990:349) Besides being critcal, It also made major recommendations on which the evolution of the Uganda Broadcasting services was to rely. It set up goals for the stations. Some of the recommendations included: Brodcasting in both English and Uganda local langaguges; proper prgramme content including information, education and entertainement; integration of local talent and music and drama; introduce broadcast in secondary schools and finally encourage use if English as a unifying langauge because if varity of Uganda langauges (Matovu 1990:349-350). In 1962, Uganda gained its independence. Uganda Broadcasting Service became a government broadcast station (Kiwanuka-Tondo 1990). It was renamed Radio Uganda (Matovu 1990:350; Chibita 2010). Ugandan started getting access to the radio. Radio became a tool for national consolidation (Chibita 2010 ). Many different programmes and languages were added. By December 1962, Radio Uganda was bordacsting in 13 languages and the weekly total number of hours brodacst has risen from 19 hours in June to 112 in Decmeber 1962 (Matovu March 1990:351). There was no language policy guideline developed by the British for inclusion of the different languages. Chibita states that The Bristish Colonial governement did not have a written policy on language use in the media. She adds that in the post-independece years, The local langauge that got adpoted by state brodcaster came on board one by one, first basing on demographic consideration and later through political pressure (Chibita 2006:114). Due to increasing number of languages, broadcasts started on two channels .i.e. red channel and blue channel. The blue channel is for listeners who speak the Bantu language of the east, west, south and central regions. The red channel broadcasts to listeners who speak vernaculars from the north and north-east (Kiwanuka-Tondo 1990:54). To increase coverage, four booster stations were set up in the four regions of Uganda to ensure countrywide coverage. These booster stations included Bobi in the north, Butebo in the east, Mawagga in the south and Kyeriba in the west (Kiwanuka-Tondo 1990:54) This did not mean every person had access to the radio. It did not reach everyone since very few people could afford to own radio in the early post independence years. To complement radio Uganda, the first television station in Uganda was opened in 1963. This came to be called Uganda Television popularly referred to as UTV. This was a Black and White model. It was until 1975, that Idi Amin, a man known globally for his reign of terror in Uganda from 1971-1979, introduced the first coloured television in the face of Ugandans (Kiwanuka-Tondo 1990). To enhance coverage, countrywide, The TV boosters were set up in Mbale in the east, Soroti in the north-east, Lira in the north, Masaka in the south-west and Mbarara in the west (Kiwanuka-Tondo 1990:54-55). The television access was much harder. It was accessible to only a few privileged persons especially elite and government civil servants. It is important to note that the introduction of Radio Uganda and Uganda Television laid the foundation for development of the broadcast media in Uganda. From 1963, Ugandas politics started changing drastically. There was no clear demarcation between the central government and Buganda kingdom. When Apollo Milton Obote became the first prime minister of the Republic of Uganda, tension developed between the central government and Buganda kingdom because Kabaka of Buganda was accorded the the position of ceremonial president (Chibita 2010) at the time of Independence. The tension between the Republic and Buganda kingdom continued for a long time eventually culminating into what is often referred to as Uganda crisis of 1966. Obote abolished kingdoms and he went ahead to proclaim himself as the president of the Republic of Uganda. According to Kasozi et al, the [t]raditional rulers were deposed in 1966-1967 not through votes of their subjects but by decree;à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦endorsed by the members of parliament (Kasozi et all:59). Kabaka Mutesa was deported to UK. According to Chibita, Radio Uganda slowly mutated into a government mouthpiece that was used to denounce those perceived as opposition, who, needless to say, had little access to this channel. She adds that political programming gradually became highly unsafe so radio resorted to parroting government propaganda and patriotic songs. (Chibita 2010: ). This souring relation between the central government and Buganda kingdom greatly affected the development of a free media in Uganda. In 1971, Amin came to power through a military coup. He à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦seized power from President Milton Obote, the man who led Uganda to independence in 1962. (BBC). On assuming power, he reconstituted all the ministries and replaced them with his right hand men. The military became the centre of the government. He restructured the ministry of information by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦employing military people to head the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, hiring and firing editorial staff at will and interfering, sometimes physically, in editorial policy and content. (Chibita, 2010: ) The years in between saw Idi Amin kill journalists and nationalize newspapers, a reversal that . . . significantly limited the role that the media could play. (Tabaire 2007:194) This greatly affected the growth of media in Uganda. Only radio Uganda and Uganda Television operated but with firm grip on them by them by the dictatorial regime. When Idi Amin was deposed by the support of government of Tanzania in 1979 (Tabaire 2007), in 1980, Ugandans went to poll to elect their president. Former president, Obote, was again elected as the president although there are claims of rigging. His second term popular known as Obote was short-lived. Many observers including the incumbent president, Yoweri Museveni, claims the elections was not free and fair. He formed the NRA and started a guerilla war against the then democratically elected government of Uganda but in 1985, Obote was toppled internally by his army man General Tito Lutwa Okello in a military coup. Obote for the second time was deposed by his own army leaders. Immediately, Okello urged all political and insurgent groups to support the new government, but the large NRA group refused to join. Peace talks occurred between the government and the NRA, but no agreement was ever reached.(Marblestone 2005) The prevailing political atmosphere and legal regime combined to make it impossible for Radio Uganda to serve as an arena that contributed meaningfully to political competition or participation.(Chibita, 2010: ). On January 26, 1986, Museveni seized power from General Okello (Borzello 2007, (Natukunda-Togboa 2008)). According to Batabaire, Museveni took the oath of office on 29 January 1986 promising that the occasion did not simply amount to another mere change of guard but a fundamental change. In the spirit of this statement, Musevenis NRM government has indeed allowed freedom of expression to a greater extent than previous Ugandan governments (Tabaire 2007:230). He was then been glorified for making significant improvement compared to the past regimes of Obote and Amin. There was libration of airwaves in 1990s. Kavuma remarks that Museveni à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦was originally labeled one of a new breed of African leaders was because of media freedoms. Magazines and newspapers thrivedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and broadcast media were liberalised, leading to the creation, over the years, of more than 150 private radio and television stations (Kavuma 2010). In 1995, the new constitution of the Republic of Uga nda bestowed the freedom of speech on Ugandans (Constitution of Uganda 1995) This according to Tabaire earned president Museveni international praise for cultivating a relatively liberal media climate' (Tabaire Bernard 2007:204). There was a rise in private FM stations in Uganda. Radio Simba became the first private radio station in Kampala and Uganda. In 1994, Capital radio was again licensed. Later Sanyu FM emerged in 1995. All these were commercially driven radio stations. Radio Simba broadcast in Luganda while Capital and Sanyu are predominantly broadcast in English with only News in vernacular Luganda only. These first three private stations showed the way and in a decade the airwaves became so crowded. Each region started setting up a radio that would broadcast in its own languages. It worth noting that as several private radios emerged; the government owned Radio Uganda lost popularity due to attractive and more entertaining programme from private FMs. In 2005, the Ugandan two giant media houses: Uganda Television (UTV) and Radio Uganda were merged through the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation Act of 2004 and became into effective on November 16, 2005. (Chibita, 210: ). Women and radio in Uganda. After a decade and half of the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in September 1994 in China, it recommended among many things: increased participation and access to media for women, there have been little gains for women in the media? There is still: Little women participations and access of women to media. There is still continued imbalanced in media and stereotyped portrayal of women. In Africa, women still lag behind both decision making and participation in media programming. This paper surveys women access to radio in Uganda. It covers among other things: number of women in radio, women coverage, portrayal and participation and finally a snapshot of factors hindering women participations. In Uganda, there is inadequate data if not almost none on women in decision making and participation in the radio industry. Many surveys on the state of media in Uganda only illustrate: Radio as the most popular media in Uganda. It estimates radio access to be at 92%. It also shows radio is also the main source of information for most Uganda. Many show ownership of the radio stations. Some surveys also show the increasing popularity in community radios while some also highlights the competitions among commercial radios. None of these shows exhaustive data on womens access and participation in mushrooming radios in Uganda. However, according to Global Report of Women in Media in New Media conducted in the Eastern African countries of Ethiopia; Kenya; and Uganda; surprisingly, it shows Uganda has the highest proportion (42 percent) of women employees in media organizations (Kiage and Macakiage 2009:1) followed by Ethiopian and lastly, Kenya at 30% and 26 % respectively. The report shows gender segregation in three radio station in Uganda. It points out that The Central Broadcasting Corporation, Radio Uganda employs 12 female and 48 males. KFM, a Kampala based radio station affiliated to the Monitor News Papers of the Nation Media Group, it employs 11 female and 9 male and Radio Mama employs 23 female and 12 male. However the report does not show what the male and female employees do but it highlights that There is widespread shortage of women professionals at senior and executive level. Only about a third of positions in top management and senior management are women (Kiage and Macakiage 2009:2). The ab sence of women in top managerial positions makes it harder for women to participate effectively through expression and decision-making in media. According to Daisy Anne Namono, Board member of Uganda Television, There is a woman at the level of Deputy Managing Director at the Uganda Broadcasting Corporation and a few others at the level of Manager Radio or Editors. . . . The institutional structure does not allow effective participation of the Deputy Managing Director in decision making (UN Public Information 2009). This illustrates the challenges of women in the mainstream media in Uganda. The Coverage of women in Uganda is found to be very little (Nassanga 2002). According to Nassanga, citing Uganda Media Womens Associations baseline survey in 1994, women received 16% of the media coverage (Nassanga 2002). This coverage are agin concentrated on urban women or those who occupy significant position in society (Nassanga 2002). Women are potrayed as mothers and caretakers (Nassanga and Nattimba 1994). Nassanga argues that media often potray women as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦inept, loose, sex objects, and so on. Women were usually portrayed in traditional domestic roles, and in feminine occupations which involved caring or giving service. The few in professional jobs were often shown as social misfits, especially if they had marital problems. (Nassanga 2002), Mukama remarks that womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ are also invariably portrayed as brainless, dependent, indecisive, subservient and sport for mens pleasure. She adds that Educated working women activists are portrayed as audacious insu bordinate agitators, while those who opt to remain single are portrayed as prostitutes, social degenerates, and immoral beings who sleep their way to the top. (Mukama 2002:147). According to Uganda Media Womens Association and Fredrich Ebert Siftung media report of 1998, findings show that: Women are perpetually stereotyped as domesticated, given to leisure, fashion and beauty interests. They are also invariably portrayed as brainless, dependent, indecisive, subservient and sports for mens leisure. Women are persistently objectified as mens possession. It adds that Educated working women are projected as audacious insubordinate agitators, while those who opt to remain single are portrayed as prostitutes, social degenerates, and immoral beings sleeping their way to the top. Those who hold high political or administrative positions are branded as incompetent and insufficient. They are ultimately demonised and isolated as irrational and inefficient. (UMWA FES 1998:11) Lewis and Boswell, citing Nassanga, the Ugandan mainstream media institutions are ruthlessly masculinist environments that wholly ignore gender-sensitive reporting, and practice extremely hostile forms of gender discrimination. (Lewsi Boswell 2002). As a reslut, mens dominance, Wanyeki argues that women à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦do not have the means to express their own realities, debate their interpretations of those realities and engage in discussions about potential solutions with decision and policy makers (Wanyeki 2000:33). Ojiambo asserts that Mianstream meida has done very little to help women organisations and women at alrge demistify (this kind) of stereotypical thinking (Ojambo 1999:11). Conclusively, Nassanga points that in terms of types of media, radio was found to be accessible than print media to women (Nassanga 2002). Finally, on factors hindering entry in managerial position and participation and, several reasons are cited. Anyango cites negative portrayal and poor working condition (Anyango 2009:24). Nassanga see it as due to lack of gender policiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. and keeping women for special purpose reporting (Nassanga 2002). According to According to Anyango, Research findings indicate that the Ugandan patriarchal society places a lot of barriers in a womans career path thereby inhibiting professional advancement. Right from birth, it is written that societal norms, values and practices are inculcated into boys and girls such that the boy acquires knowledge and skills for self survival and independence. (Anyango 2009:25). Ojiambo mainstream are doing very little in to alleviate womens position (Ojambo 1999). Nassanga In sum, the reviewed works illustrates inadequacy of data and insights in Ugandas media on women. They reveal little coverage on women and the negative portrayal and several factors hindering women in achieving a gendered media in Uganda. However, not all negative. For example, Khamalwa claims that in the last five years, more women compared to men joined Journalism (Khamalwa 2006:13) According to Anyago, there has been womens improvement in media coverage due to affirmative action by the governement and aslo the rise of women like Action for Development (ACFODE) and Uganda Media Womens Association (UMWA) which have championed womens by advocating for positive portrayal and public education and sensitization (Anyango 2009). In Uganda, with the growth of alternative media especially community radio stations, there are avenue for women participations and expressions. In these stations, womens participate in programming. Women have enough space for voicing their concerns although they s till lack representation at managerial level. Further study is required to fully understand the women in radio industry, if meaningful gender balance is to be accrued in Ugandas radios and media. How is it then done with Mega FM community radios? Women are underrepresented in media content when compared to the 50% of the population which they constitute. In reality many more women work than we get to see or read about in media content. (Zoonen 1994:30) Towards contributions of Mega FM to womens empowerment There has been contestation about the status of Mega FM. This has generated a great deal of debate. One group argues that Mega FM is a community radio while others reject this proposition and claim that it not a community radio at all. A community radio by definition according to UNESCO is A community radio station is one that is operated in the community, for the community, about the community and by the community.  [1]  It adds that It serves a recognizable community; It encourages participatory democracy; It offers the opportunity to any member of the community to initiate communication and participate in program making, management and ownership of the station; It uses technology appropriate to the economic capability of the people, not that which leads to dependence on external sources; It is motivated by community well being, not commercial considerations, It promotes and improves problem solving.  [2]  Whatever their view points, Mega FM calls itself a community radio a nd has been revered for according space for womens participation in their programming. It employs and produces many women programmes than any radio station in northern Uganda. It has been awarded for participation of women and children.  [3]   David Okidi, the station manager: Our programming is based on the fact that we need to inform and entertain so even when we are informing we need to do so in a way that is very interesting. So, coming from a background of conflict, our kind of programming should not forget the fact that listeners are depressed and the programming should appeal to them.  [4]  Its programming is similar to womens community radio in Andhra Pradesh, India, where The radios team of reporters collect stories related to agriculture, education, health issues, womens empowerment.  [5]  Womens programmes are mainly pre-recorded and played as magazines. This is because of lack of access to telephone access by women. Besides recording, womens participations are still welcome through phone-in into on-air programmes and letters which are read on the stations. Contributions The power of community radio to mobilize groups and bring change to societies is well recognized.)  [6]   Community radios and constructive broadcasting: Mega FM promotes constructive communication for in northern Uganda. Their constructive broadcasting is shape by their understanding concerns and challenges in the community. Programme makers argue that they have wealth of reporters who constantly keep them informed in most community events. According to one radio presenter, doing a community programmes require understanding of the community.  [7]  One radio producer adds that our programming is not just about giving women platform to talk, it about involving them in programming and developing content while aiming at one outcome together.  [8]  This reflects through understanding of radio programming. Elisa et al believe that Using radio as a catalyst for social change and development requires thorough understanding of the principles of radio programming. Such principles include the importance of clearly identifying and defining the specific target audience, ensuring continuity o f radio programming and making certain that programmes have a strong, locally relevant message.  [9]  In this way Mega FM works to show positive portrayal of women while carefully highlighting the issues for public understanding and tackling issues that emerge within society. Programmes are tailored to moderated and tailored to meet needs. According to Dyere womens group leader, who is a regular on Mega FM, she notes that Mega FM deals with womens issues that emerge within our different places.  [10]  Additionally, another one woman adds that It does not seek to damage women but it reports in an honest, responsible way.

Impact of Society of Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre Essay -- Jane Eyre E

Impact of Society on Jane Eyre  Ã‚        Ã‚   For the middle classes, the years preceding the publication of Jane Eyre were a time of turbulence and change from which the family provided a haven of stability and security. At the center of the family stood the "Angel at the hearth" - a Madonna-like wife and mother from whom all morality sprang. Not everyone agreed but the conception was supported by mainstream political and religious beliefs, and girls were taught that they should aspire not [to] self will, and government by self control, but submission, and yielding to the control of others, to live for others; to make complete abnegation of themselves, and to have no life but in their affections. Despite some social reforms and widespread debate about the role of women, the idea was tenacious. Soon after Jane Eyre was published, while John Stuart Mill wrote of "a principal of perfect equality" for men and women, Mrs Lynne Linton complained that the Girl of the Period was excessively forward and independent, comparing badly with the "simple and genuine girl of the past". Many of the middle classes agreed, but not all, and by the end of the century the Girl of the Period had matured into the "New Woman", a predatory figure who rejected marriage, advocated contraception and wanted independence through paid work. To those like Mrs Linton who supported the status quo this represented a state of anarchy. If society was built upon the family, which in turn depended upon a particular role for woman, to change that role was to threaten the whole structure of society. Novels and periodicals, widely read at the time, offered a good medium in which to debate the "women's question", since the fate meted to characters... ...: Linton, E Lynn, "The Girl of the Period", Saturday Review, 14 March 1868 Mill, John Stuart, The subjection of women, (Everyman edition, 1965) Lerner, Laurence (ed), The context of English Literature; the Victorians, (Methuen and Co Ltd, 1978) Miles, Rosalind, The fiction of sex, (Vision Press Ltd, 1974) Stoker, Bram, Dracula, (Pan books, 1992) Internet articles: Jackson, Mark, The position of middle class women as a context for Bronte's Jane Eyre, (http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/hypertext/landow/victorian/cbronte/73cbwomen.htm) Landow, George P, In what sense is Jane Eyre a feminist novel? (http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/hypertext/landow/victorian/cbronte/brontel.html) Steyer, PJ, Jane Eyre, Protofeminist, versus the "third person man" (http://www.stg.brown.edu/projects/hypertext/landow/victorian/cbronte/steyer7.html

Intellectual Property: The Patents :: Intellectual Property Patent Papers

Intellectual Property: The Patents Introduction While an ethical analysis in intellectual property may not be as interesting as the ethical analysis in human genetics, such as in human cloning, patents are the most relevant in the area of high technology, which is the most important industry in the Silicon Valley and arguably, becoming one of the most powerful engines in the growth of the U.S. economy. In fact, intellectual property, a once very sleepy and very boring subject, is one of the hottest topics of conversations today in the high technology industry. Background The growing importance of patents has fueled the tremendous growth of new patents being issued annually in the past several years and currently accelerating even faster. Many concerns have been raised about new patent ideas such as new business methods and other abstract concepts. Two examples of these business method patents are the â€Å"One-Click† checkout and payment Internet technology patented by Amazon.com, an Internet commerce company, and the â€Å"Reverse Auction† Internet technology patented by Priceline.com, an Internet based travel agent. Many argue that business methods are discoveries and not true inventions. â€Å"We discover what before existed, though to us unknown; we invent what did not exist before.†1 Patents have become one of the greatest competitive assets to ensure the future of the business and as business tools to map trends and convergences, innovates new strategies and capabilities of partners and competitors, and improve all business units in the corporation. Patents have become critical in determining the winners and losers in business competition. Business Issues Patents have also become strategic assets and competitive weapon of enormous value. Patents have become the bargaining chips for companies in negotiations with other companies to gain competitive advantage by gaining access to needed technologies by cross-licensing its patents with partners and competitors. As businesses began to discover, the power of patents can no longer be ignored in business competitions as the importance of new ideas and innovations have overshadowed market position and tangible assets such as real estate and raw materials to achieve competitive goals. Patents have become critical in the business battlefield  ­Ã‚ ­Ã¢â‚¬â€ the â€Å"smart bombs† of tomorrow’s business wars2 — in addition to the traditional sales increase to expand market share. Patents are the tools that every company needs in the business battlefield to capture and defend its market share, stay ahead of the competition, increase revenues, and to be successful in their respective business segments.

The Components of an Information System

The Components of an Information System A system is a group of components that work together to achieve a purpose. There are five components that make up an information system. The five components are Hardware, Software, Data, Procedures, and People. These five components make up every information system from the smallest system to the most complex system. The first component is the hardware, which are electronic components and related gadgetry that input, process, output, store, and communicate data according to the instructions encoded in computer programs or software.The second component is the software, which are the instructions for computers. The third component is Data, which are recorded facts or figures. The fourth components are procedures, which are instructions for humans to follow when working within an information system. The last components are the people that are involved. This includes those who operate and service the computers, those who maintain the data, those wh o support the networks, and those who use the system.All of these components make up an Information System. These five components together make up the Five Component framework, which are the five fundamental components of an information system. First you will need the hardware in order to start off your system. Then you must use the software in order to run you hardware. After you have set up your hardware and loaded up the software to run it, you will need data to input into your hardware.Once you have your data ready you will need procedures set in play to properly store your data within the system, and last you will need people in order to put in the data and keep the system up and running properly at all times. As you can see, you will need every component in order to ensure that you have a functional running information system Reference: Kroenke, D. M. (2013). Using MIS (5th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Regulation of Political Speech

Can governments regulate political speech of corporations through restrictions on independent corporate expenditures? Over the course of the past twenty years, the U. S. Supreme Court constantly increased constitutional protection of corporate speech under the First Amendment and repeatedly struck down regulations on commercial speech as violating the First Amendment. Although the Supreme Court recently held statutory restrictions on corporate expenditures for electioneering communications to violate the right to free speech, it is still controversially discussed whether such restrictions can be upheld under the First Amendment. However, supporters of such restrictions ignore that the First Amendment is written in terms of speech and not of speakers and does not distinguish between different classes of speakers. Thus, restrictions on political speech cannot be justified solely based on the speaker’s corporate identity or its financial ability and inconsistent with the objective of preserving the integrity of the political process. Introduction TTThe freedom of speech is understood as an essential mechanism of democracy, for the free and public discussion of governmental affairs enables citizens to make informed choices among candidates for office. Owing to fundamental changes in society political views are increasingly expressed through organizations and corporations. In this respect, the protection of corporate speech under the First Amendment is widely recognized. Restrictions on corporate expenditures for political speech reduce the quantity of speech and thus restrict political speech itself. Along these lines, in Citizen United v. Federal Election Commission, the Supreme Court struck down statutory restrictions on corporate expenditures for electioneering communications as violating the First Amendment. However, this decision was widely criticized, in particular President Barak Obama blamed it as â€Å"open[ing of] the floodgates for special interests [†¦] to spend without limit in [United States] elections† and contended that American elections should not be â€Å"bankrolled by America's most powerful interests†. Notwithstanding the governmental interest in preventing corruption in the electoral process, the First Amendment does not distinguish between different classes of speakers and grants a corporation the same political speech rights as a natural person. To that effect, I intend to assess whether restrictions on corporate expenditures as imposed by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA) can be justified under the First Amendment. The paper has three main parts. To begin with, I quickly analyze in how far the provisions on corporate expenditures contained in the BCRA restrict the right of corporations to free speech under the first amendment. In part II, I examine the main arguments to justify such restrictions on corporate speech and raise some objections against them and finally, in the last part of the paper I examine to which extent the restrictions imposed by the BCRA are narrowly tailored to and consistent with the objectives they intend to achieve. I. Analysis of the Restraint The BCRA, prohibited the use of corporate general treasury funds for electioneering communications and only allows expenditures by segregated corporate funds through political action committees (PACs). As PACs are burdensome and expensive to administer they reduce the quantity of speech, for the quantity of speech is limited by financial resources available for the expression of political ideas. Consequently, expenditure restrictions function as a barrier to corporate speech and thereby prevent corporate voices from reaching the public and advising voters and deprive the public of its right to decide which speech and speakers are worthy of consideration. Therefore, restrictions on corporate expenditures also restrict political speech itself. Such restrictions can only be justified if they further a compelling interest and are narrowly tailored to achieve this interest. II. Compelling Governmental Interest In line with Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, it is argued that restrictions on corporate expenditures serve a compelling interest in preserving the integrity of the electoral process. As corporations, unlike individuals, possess more power and financial resources than most individuals they can exercise a greater influence on public political debates. To that effect, restrictions on corporate expenditures are claimed to be necessary to avoid quid pro quo corruption, namely to prevent corporations from exercising undue influence on officeholders inducing them to â€Å"act contrary to their obligations of office by the prospect of financial gain† – or in other words to prevent corporations from â€Å"buying† favors from a candidate. Opponents of expenditure restrictions contend that independent expenditures are not as dangerous as contributions, for they are not prearranged with candidate and might even turn out to be to the detriment of the candidate for such lack of prearrangement. However, I am not prepared to agree with this contemplation. As corporations usually inform candidates about their conduct, independent expenditures can have the same effect as direct contributions. On that note the court emphasizes in McConnell v. Federal Election Com’n that independent expenditures can be even more effective to induce then-elected officials to exercise their duties in favor of their corporate care-givers, because candidates know very well who their friends are. Notwithstanding the desirability to prevent corruption, the First Amendment does not distinguish between powerful and less powerful speakers, but stands against attempts to disfavor certain subjects or viewpoints and protects an open marketplace of ideas where speakers can engage in ‘vigorous’ advocacy. Therefore, it is inconsistent with attempts to restrict the speech of some to enhance the speech of others and the right to free speech cannot be made dependent on a person’s financial ability to engage in public discussion. In line with this, the Supreme Court held in Buckley v. Valeo that individuals and unincorporated groups are free to spend unlimited amounts to promote a candidate or his views. In this light, the potential for corruption cannot be said to be higher than in case of expenditures by individuals and there is no reason why corporate expenditures should be limited while a billionaire can lawfully spend millions to promote a candidate and exercise the same potential influence on the public debate. In addition, expenditure restrictions are claimed to be justified by a compelling interest to protect shareholders from being compelled to fund corporate speech, although their investments in the corporation only reflect economic choices, but not necessarily support for the corporation’s political ideas. Unlike individual speakers, corporations only operate to make profits and their participation in elections is transactional rather than ideological as they usually give money to candidates from both sides. At that, the special advantages of the corporate form – like limited liability and favorable treatment of the accumulation and distribution of assets – improve a corporation’s abilities to attract capital. Therefore, it is argued that resources a corporation acquired in the economic marketplace provide an unfair advantage on the political marketplace, because State law only allows corporations to be dominant in the economy, but not in politics. Although shareholders are free to sell their shares and cease the support of a corporation, they might be reluctant to withdraw their investment as this might force them to sacrifice profits from the corporation’s nonpolitical operations. However, this approach ignores that all speakers, even individuals, use money amassed on the economic marketplace to fund their speech. For instance, political speech might be funded through speakers’ salaries although their employer does not necessarily support their views or might be financed by loans from creditors who do not necessarily support the speakers’ views. III. Are Expenditure Restrictions Narrowly Tailored? Even assuming that the aforementioned interests could be considered compelling, the provisions of the BCRA are not narrowly tailored to achieve those interests. They are overinclusive because they include small corporations that do not possess the financial ability to exercise a dominant influence on the political debate and non-profit organizations. On the other hand, they are underinclusive for they exclude media corporations, although in particular modern media empires amass immense wealth and unreviewable power and are equally if not better equipped to influence the public political debate than other corporations. Many media corporations are owned or controlled by corporations that have diverse and substantial investments and participate in endeavors other than news. As a result, a corporation owning a media business and a non-media business could exercise its control over the media to advance its overall business interests whereas other corporations would be prohibited from promoting the same issue. Lastly, political speech is so integrated in this country’s culture that speakers will always find a way to circumvent campaign finance laws. Conclusion Restrictions on corporate expenditures for electioneering communications can no longer be upheld under the First Amendment. Likewise, no other restrictions on free speech can be imposed solely based on the corporate identity of the speaker. Nevertheless, I do not believe that the special interests of powerful corporations are likely to take over control of the electoral process, since disclaimer, disclosure and reporting standards ensure the integrity of the political process and allow voters to make a sophisticated choice. However, if Congress considers corporate expenditures to pose a threat to the integrity of the electoral process it is free to limit expenditures of all speakers, including individuals, or to impose heightened disclosure or reporting standards, provided they can identify a compelling interest for such restrictions. ——————————————- [ 1 ]. Darrell A. H. Miller, Guns, Inc. : Citizens United, Mcdonald, and the Future of Corporate Constitutional Rights, 86 NYUL. Rev. 887, 899 [2011]; First Nat. Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, 435 US 765, 98 S Ct 1407, 55 L. Ed. 2d 707 [1978]; Citizens United v. Fed. Election Com' n, 130 S Ct 876, 900, 175 L Ed 2d 753 [2010]; Id. 130 S Ct at 925-926; United States v. Playboy 529 U. S. 803, 813, 120 S. Ct. 1978, 146 L. Ed. 2d 865 [2000]. [ 2 ]. Kusper v. Pontikes 414 US 51, 56, 57, 94 S Ct 303, 307, 38 L Ed 2d 260 [1973]; Citizens United 130 S Ct 876, 885; Id. t , 899, 905, 913; Bellotti, 435 U. S. , at 783-784; Alex Osterlind, Giving A Voice to the Inanimate, at 275; Breanne Gilpatrick, Removing Corporate Campaign Finance Restrictions in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 130 S. Ct. 876 (2010), 34 Harv. JL & Pub Pol'y 405, 416 [2011]. [ 3 ]. Mills v. Alabama 384 US 214, 218, 86 S Ct 1434, 1437, 16 L Ed 2d 484; Bellotti at 777; Citizens United at 898-899; Buckley v. Valeo, 424 US 1, 14-15, 96 S Ct 612, 46 L Ed 2d 659 [1976]. [ 4 ]. Bellotti, at 777-778; Time, Inc. v. Firestone, 424 U. S. 448, 96 S. Ct. 958, 47 L. Ed. 2d 154 [1976]; Doran v. Salem Inn, Inc. , 422 U. S. 922, 95 S. Ct. 2561, 45 L. Ed. 2d 648 [1975]; Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. v. Conrad, 420 U. S. 546, 95 S. Ct. 1239, 43 L. Ed. 2d 448 [1975]; Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn, 420 U. S. 469, 95 S. Ct. 1029, 43 L. Ed. 2d 328 [1975]; Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo, 418 U. S. 241, 94 S. Ct. 2831, 41 L. Ed. 2d 730 [1974]; New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U. S. 713, 91 S. Ct. 2140, 29 L. Ed. 2d 822 [1971] (per curiam); Time, Inc. v. Hill, 385 U. S. 374, 87 S. Ct. 534, 17 L. Ed. 2d 456 [1967]; NAACP v. Button, 371 U. S. 415, 428-429, 83 S. Ct 328 9 L. Ed. 2d 405; Grosjean v. American Press Co. , 297 U. S. 233, 244, 56 S. Ct. 444, 80 L. Ed. 660 [1936] [ 5 ]. Buckley, 424 U. S. 1, 19; Citizens United at 898. [ 6 ]. Citizens United v Fed. Election Com'n, 130 S Ct 876, 175 L Ed 2d 753 [2010]. [ 7 ]. Alex Osterlind, Giving A Voice to the Inanimate, 76 Mo L Rev 259 [2011]; Bradley A. Smith, President Wrong on Citizens United Case, NAT'L REV. ONLINE, Jan. 27, 2010, http://corner. nationalreview. com/post/? q=ZTVkODZiM2M0ODEzOGQ3MTMwYzgzYjNmODBiMzQz=. [ 8 ]. Bellotti, 435 US 765; Citizens United at 900, 925-926; Playboy 529 U. S. 803, 813; Kusper v. Pontikes 414 US 51, 56, 57, 94 S Ct 303, 307, 38 L Ed 2d 260 [1973]; Citizens United 130 S Ct 876, 885; Id. at , 899, 905, 913; Bellotti, 435 U. S. , at 783-784; Alex Osterlind, Giving A Voice to the Inanimate, at 275; Breanne Gilpatrick, Removing Corporate Campaign Finance Restrictions, at 416. [ 9 ]. Pub. L. No. 107-155, 116 Stat. 81 (codified in scattered sections of 2, 8, 18, 28, 36, 47 U. S. C. ). [ 10 ]. Pub. L. No. 107-155, 116 Stat. 81; Citizens United, at 887 (citing 2 U. S. C.  § 441b(B)(2) (2006)). [ 11 ]. Citizens United at, 897; McConnell v Fed. Election Com'n, 540 US 93, 330-333, 124 S Ct 619, 630, 157 L Ed 2d 491 [2003] overruled by Citizens United; Fed. Election Com'n v Massachusetts Citizens for Life, Inc. , 479 US 238, 253-254, 107 S Ct 616, 619, 93 L Ed 2d 539 [1986]; Buckley, 424 U. S. 1, 19. [ 12 ]. Citizens United at 899; Bellotti, at 791-92; Kingsley Intern. Pictures Corp. v Regents of Univ. of State of N. Y. , 360 US 684, 689 [1959]. [ 13 ]. Citizens United, at 898; Fed. Election Com'n v Wisconsin Right To Life, Inc. 551 US 449, 464, 127 S Ct 2652, 2657, 168 L Ed 2d 329 [2007]. [ 14 ]. Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, 494 US 652,659- 660, 110 S Ct 1391, 1395, 108 L Ed 2d 652 [1990] overruled by Citizens United; Fed. Election Com'n v Natl. Conservative Political Action Comm. , 470 US 480, 500-501 105 S Ct 1459, 84 L Ed 2d 455 [1985]. [ 15 ]. NCPAC, 470 US 480, 496-497. [ 16 ]. McConnell, 540 US 93, at 143-144; Id. at 150, 152-15 4, 297; Fed. Election Com'n v Colorado Republican Fed. Campaign Comm. , 533 US 431, 441, 121 S Ct 2351, 150 L Ed 2d 461 [2001]; Nixon v Shrink Missouri Govt. PAC, 528 US 377, 389, 120 S Ct 897, 145 L Ed 2d 886 [2000]. [ 17 ]. Buckley, 424 US 1, 45-46. [ 18 ]. Citizens United at 926; McConnell, 251 F supp. 2d at 555-560, 622-625; Playboy at 804-805, 813; WRTL at 478; Buckley at 45. [ 19 ]. Mcconnell, 540 US at 129. [ 20 ]. United States v Intl. Union United Auto. , Aircraft and Agr. Implement Workers of Am. (UAW-CIO), 352 US 567, 597, 77 S Ct 529, 1 L Ed 2d 563 [1957]; Citizens United at 883; Playboy at 803, 813; Bellotti at 784. [ 21 ]. Citizens United at 907. [ 22 ]. Buckley at 47-48 CU; New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 US at 269, 84 S. Ct at 721 (quoting Bridges v. California 314 US 252, 270, 62 S. Ct. 190, 197, 86 L. Ed. 192 (1941); NACAP at 419. [ 23 ]. Kusper v. Pontikes 424 us at 48-49, Buckley, 96 S. Ct at 648-649. [ 24 ]. Buckley, 424 US 1, 48; New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 US at 269; NACAP, 371 us at 419. [ 25 ]. Buckley at 45. [ 26 ]. Austin at 497-498; 500-501; 105 S. Ct at 1468-1469; NCPAC, supra at 500-501. [ 27 ]. Austin, 494 US 652, 685. [ 28 ]. Id. at 659; MCFL 479 US at 257,258, 263; FEC v. National Right to Work Committee 459 US 197, 208, 103 S. Ct. 52, 559, 74 L. Ed. 2d 364 (1982); Pipefitter v. United States 407 US 385, 414-415, 92 S. Ct. 2247, 2264, 33 L. Ed. 2d 11 (1972); Bellotti 98 S Ct 1407, 1431 [ 29 ]. McConnell 540 US at 148. [ 30 ]. Austin 494 US at 658-659. [ 31 ]. Austin 494 US at 658-659. [ 32 ]. Id. at 710. [ 33 ]. MCFL, 479 US 238, 260, 264, 107 S Ct 616, 629, 631. [ 34 ]. Citizen United, at 904; Austin at 660. [ 35 ]. Citizens United, at 905. [ 3 6 ]. Citizens United, at 905. [ 37 ]. Citizens United at 906. [ 38 ]. Citizens United at 906. [ 39 ]. Citizen United at 911-13; McConnell 540 US at 176-177.